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Glosario

READING STRATEGIES TO UNDERSTAND TECHNICAL TEXTS

Learning objectives

  • Learn and apply a set of reading strategies: pre-reading, skimming, scanning, and showing comprehension through summaries.
  • Determine and specify a text’s general purpose and the purposes of its individual paragraphs
  • Differentiate 4 types of summaries depending on their audience and purpose.
  • Write a summary that fulfills the writer’s purpose and also meets audience expectations in terms of length, register, amount of technical jargon, and use of citations.
  • Write a summary with grammar and vocabulary features that fulfill the writer’s purpose and meet audience expectations.

Getting started

As a student, how do you approach English technical texts in your courses? Check ( ) the boxes that apply to you.
1: Before I read a technical text in English I look at the titles and sections and imagine what the text will be about.
2: Before I read a technical text in English, I ask myself how the text is connected to the course content.
3: I read the text only once and look for the translation of all the words I don’t know.
4: When I read the text, I highlight many parts. The more, the better.
5: After I read, I translate all the ideas into Spanish to check I understood.

◊ Did you check statements 1, 2?

You are applying effective reading strategies. It is a good idea to complement these pre-reading strategies with others presented in this guide.

◊ Did you check statements 3, 4, 5? 

Your current strategies may not be the best for effective reading. Keep reading this guide!

Understanding a text: Pre-reading – Reading with a Purpose – Showing comprehension

1) Pre-reading Strategies:

Before you read, ask yourself these questions:

◊ WHY have I been assigned this text? How is the text related to my course content?
◊ HOW is the text organized? Survey or look at the big picture: look at the titles, headings and subheadings, words in bold or italics, charts, and figures.
◊ WHAT are the key concepts that stand out when you survey the text?
◊ HOW MUCH do I know about the topic?
◊ WHAT do you think the text will be about?
◊ HOW LONG will it take you to read this text?

hoja

QUICK TIP:

If the text does not have headings, subheadings, or words in bold or italics, DON’T PANIC! You can move on to a reading strategy called SKIMMING. Read more about it below.

EXERCISE 1.1

Apply the pre-reading strategies using the text at the end of this section titled “The night Sky is Dark.” (Context: That section is part of a larger book – Introduction to Cosmology, and it is the beginning of Chapter 2: Fundamental Observations). If you prefer, choose a text from your own courses.

2) Reading with a Purpose: Skimming and Scanning

Now that you will start to read, do it with a purpose:

◊ Finding general information fast: skimming
◊ Finding specific information fast: scanning

If you want to ensure proper understanding of the text, before you read in depth, apply both skimming and scanning; in other words, you will need to read much more than once!

The excerpt below is located at the beginning of Chapter 2 in “Introduction to Cosmology.” The first and last sentences have been underlined for you (Strategy 1 and 2). The word “deceptive” appears in the last sentence, so it has been highlighted in case you need to know its meaning (definition at the bottom). With the strategies mentioned above and the new key word, can you predict what the rest of the text will be about?

Some of the observations on which modern cosmology is based are highly complex, requiring elaborate apparatus and sophisticated data analysis. However, other observations are surprisingly simple. Let’s start with an observation that is deceptive in its extreme simplicity.

Deceptive

(adjective) something that appears to be one thing but is in fact very different.

Source: Ryden, Barbara (2003). Fundamental Observations. In Introduction to Cosmology (pp. 6-25).

The underlined parts tell us that 1) some modern cosmology observations are very complex; 2) other observations (the one coming next) seem simple, but they are not.

EXERCISE 2.1

The text below continues the explanation above. Apply strategies 1, 2, 3 for every paragraph. As you underline, write notes on the right using your own words as much as possible. Follow the example given to create your notes. (Notes: Facts + Your own comments in parenthesis).

THE NIGHT SKY IS DARK

Step outside on a clear, moonless night, far from city lights, and look upward. You will see a dark sky, with roughly two thousand stars scattered across it. The fact that the night sky is dark at visible wavelengths, instead of being uniformly bright with starlight, is known as Olbers’ Paradox, after the astronomer Heinrich Olbers, who wrote a scientific paper on the subject in 1826. As it happens, Olbers was not the first person to think about Olbers’ Paradox. As early as 1576, Thomas Digges mentioned how strange it is that the night sky is dark, with only a few pinpoints of light to mark the location of stars.
Why should it be paradoxical that the night sky is dark? Most of us simply take for granted the fact that daytime is bright and night time is dark. The darkness of the night sky certainly posed no problems to the ancient Egyptians or Greeks, to whom stars were points of light stuck to a dome or sphere. However, the cosmological model of Copernicus required that the distance to stars be very much larger than an astronomical unit; otherwise, the parallax of the stars as the Earth goes around its orbit, would be large enough to see with the naked eye. Moreover, since the Copernican system no longer requires that the stars be attached to a rotating celestial sphere, the stars can be at different distances from the Sun. These liberating realizations led. Thomas Digges, and other post-Copernican astronomers, to embrace a model in which stars are large glowing spheres, like the Sun, scattered throughout infinite space.

Let’s compute how bright we expect the night sky to be in an infinite universe. Let n be the average number density of stars in the universe, and let L be the average stellar luminosity. 

(Text edited for length).

The paragraph starts by setting the scene right before introducing key concept: Olbers’ Paradox.

It gives an older example of a scientist who noticed the paradox. (maybe not so important? Next paragraph will probably explain how the paradox works).

hoja
QUICK TIP: You will probably remember the information better if you write notes in your own words on the side of the text rather than copying them from the textbook.

EXERCISE 2.2

Keep applying strategies 1-3 in the rest of the text. By doing so, you will be able to get “the big picture” of how the text is constructed and also of what you should focus on to understand the text. Now that you have the big picture, let’s move on to locating the details through the next strategy: scanning.

If you scan the second paragraph of the text above, you will see that the following concepts are repeated: “Model of Copernicus, Copernican system, Post-Copernican astronomers.” But does this answer the main idea or question of the text? Not really. In this case, you should continue onto the next step: reading closely to fully understand the text. This means you should read the sentences again and take short notes, as shown in the notetaking example below (about paragraph 2 above):

Main idea – Paradox: Night sky is dark

Supporting details

◊ No paradox for Egyptians or Greeks.

◊ Paradox starts with cosmological model of Copernicus: distance larger than astronomical unit.

◊ Copernican system: stars vary distance from the Sun.

◊ Post- Copernican astronomers: stars are large glowing spheres through out space.

EXERCISE 2.3

Skimming and scanning are not enough for in depth understanding.
To do that, you need to read more closely!

3) Showing comprehension
Now that you will start to read, do it with a purpose:

To be 100% sure you have understood a text, you can do the following: review the text and/or create a summary.

Reviewing involves “manipulating” or “creating a product” with the information learnt. Examples are making a map, table, or diagram of the information; teaching someone else; creating potential test questions; and quizzing a classmate.

Summarizing involves reporting the main idea and the most relevant supporting details. It is objective, that is, it should not include your opinions or comments on the information presented. Stick to the facts. It can be one-sentence long or more, depending on the purpose!

Post-reading: Reflecting on the reading process

1. Read and reflect on the following statements. Complete them with your own ideas.

1. The most useful reading strategy(ies) presented in this section were…
2. The strategy(ies) that I want to try out in future readings is/are…
3. One of the ideas I found rather confusing and that I need to consult about is…

2. Read and reflect on these two questions about your own process of learning how to read successfully in English.

1. How confident do I feel about my English reading skills after working with this guide?
2. How is understanding texts in English important for my academic and professional life in my field of study?

Hopefully, now you feel much more confident about reading in English after studying and practicing with this guide. Reading and understanding English texts successfully can be quite time-consuming and even frustrating at the beginning; however, the more you practice, the easier it gets and the better you become at it. Eventually, if you keep practicing and applying these skills, by the time you graduate you will be an expert reader, with a wide range of technical and non-technical vocabulary. Once you start working, you will see the benefits of knowing how to read in English by being able to access and understand state-of-the-art information, which is normally only published in English.

If you need further assistance with reading skills and practice, contact the Armadillo Lab and book a session. 

In the following section, you will take your learning a step further by consolidating your understanding of a text in writing. More specifically, you will learn to summarize a reading passage for a range of purposes and audiences.

Creating effective summaries in English

As in any other writing activity, creating a summary involves 3 steps: planning, writing, and revising. Below is a brief checklist with all the elements to consider when summarizing. While you work on your summary, check the boxes for each step of the process to make sure you are going in the right direction.

Read about an earth science project and apply strategies 1-3 above to understand the text.

Ozone Gas and Predicting Earthquakes

David Searle

The subject, or topic, of this project is the role ozone gas may play in predicting earthquakes. Ozone gas is a natural gas. It is found in Earth’s atmosphere. Recent research at the University of Virginia shows that ozone gas may appear when rocks break apart. This is exciting new research. This tells us that ozone gas may help us to know when an earthquake is going to happen.

To understand this, it is necessary to understand how earthquakes happen. The top layer of Earth is called the crust. The crust “floats” above the inner layer of the earth similar to ice floating on a river. It is divided into 12 plates, or enormous sections of Earth. The edges of these plates are called fault lines. These plates are not attached to each other. In fact, they move slowly, at only a couple of centimeters a year. The moving plates rub against each other. Parts of them can stick to each other. While the edges of the plates are stuck to each other, other parts of each plate are still moving. The plates pull at the stuck edges. This creates a lot of pressure. The pressure continues to build until the edges of the plates separate. This forces the plates
to move suddenly at the fault lines. We experience this as the ground shaking, or as an earthquake.

It should be highlighted that before the plates move, the pressure breaks up underground rock. Studies show that breaking rocks can release, or send out, ozone gas. Therefore, the team will place devices that measure levels of ozone gas near fault lines. If our theory is correct, ozone gas levels in the air should increase just before an earthquake.

It should be acknowledged that more experiments must be done to prove this theory. We need to be sure the rising ozone gas comes only from underground rocks breaking apart. However, if this is true, this research can help predict earthquakes. Scientists may be able to code maps with ozone gas level. This would help us know the chances of an earthquake happening. It is hoped that this research will help protect people from earthquakes.

Adapted from: Burns, W. (2014). Inside Writing Intro Student Book: The Academic Word List in Context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Now read the summary of the same project below.

The topic of the research is ozone gas and how it may help in predicting earthquakes. Ozone is a natural gas. Ozone gas may be released when rocks break before an earthquake. Earthquakes are caused by plates moving against each other at fault lines, or the edges of plates. Plates are large pieces of ground that move very slowly over time. The surface of the Earth is made up of 12 plates. The plates rub against each other. Sometimes two pieces get attached, which crates pressure. This causes a couple of things to happen. First, it can break underground rocks. Second, it will lead to an earthquake. Ozone gas may be released by the breaking rocks. Measuring the ozone gas rising from underground could predict an earthquake. The theory is not proven yet. To test it, the research team will measure ozone gas near fault lines with special devices. To prove this theory, the ozone gas levels must rise just before an earthquake.

Source: Burns, W. (2014). Inside Writing Intro Student Book: The Academic Word List in Context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Analyzing the structure of a summary

Work with a partner. Compare the two texts in terms of the categories on the table below. What can you conclude?

In this case, you can observe that while both texts are written mostly in the present tense and the tone is formal, the summary is substantially shorter than the original. You may have heard this before, but where to start? Read and study the steps below.

01

Understand the purpose of the original text

Understanding what each paragraph “is doing” to contribute to the whole text can help you to improve your comprehension of the ideas stated.

Read the project report again. With a partner, match each paragraph number (1-4) on the right with their purposes (a-d) on the left. If you identified the main ideas of the text correctly, this should be much easier!

Source: Burns, W. (2014). Inside Writing Intro Student Book: The Academic Word List in Context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Once you are sure that you have fully understood the text, you can move on to step 2:

02

Determine the purpose and audience of your summary

Think of all the academic summaries you have written. What have you used them for? Were all of them equally long? If you have created summaries as a personal study tool, you have probably included the most important ideas with important details you need to learn; perhaps you have done research and have used two- or three-line sentences to remember what each useful source is about if you need to use it; or else, you have written a longer summary to show your professor what you have understood and what you think of a source. As you can see, summaries can vary in length and format depending on the purpose and the audience.

Analyzing the content of a summary

Read the project report again. With a partner, match each paragraph number (1-4) on the right with their purposes (a-d) on the left. If you identified the main ideas of the text correctly, this should be much easier!

Summary 1

The topic of the research is ozone gas and how it may help in predicting earthquakes. Ozone is a natural gas. Ozone gas may be released when rocks break before an earthquake. Earthquakes are caused by plates moving against each other at fault lines, or the edges of plates. Plates are large pieces of ground that move very slowly over time. The surface of the Earth is made up of 12 plates. The plates rub against each other. Sometimes two pieces get attached, which crates pressure. This causes a couple of things to happen. First, it can break underground rocks. Second, it will lead to an earthquake. Ozone gas may be released by the breaking rocks. Measuring the ozone gas rising from underground could predict an earthquake. The theory is not proven yet. To test it, the research team will measure ozone gas near fault lines with special devices. To prove this theory, the ozone gas levels must rise just before an earthquake.

Source: Burns, W. (2014). Inside Writing Intro Student Book: The Academic Word List in Context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Summary 2

The science project argues that ozone gas emissions could predict earthquakes. The project is still at an experimental phase, but it hopes it can be useful in predicting earthquakes.

Summary 3

Over the last 15 years, there have been many attempts to discover if earthquakes can be predicted. A recent study by Searle, 2019 has explored the causal relationship between ozone gas and earthquakes. According to the author, this would occur as a result of the subterranean rock that fractures before an earthquake with the subsequent release of ozone gas. Despite being promising research, it is still in its experimental phase, so the results are not conclusive.

Summary 4

In this project, the author discusses an ongoing research that attempts to provide evidence for the theory of ozone gas as predictor of earthquakes. He explains how an earthquake occurs so that the audience understands what his rationale behind the project is. To test this theory, his team will place devices to measure levels of ozone gas near fault lines and check if the gas increases before an earthquake. Finally, the author hopes this will be successful in order to make further advances in earthquake science and benefit the general population, as well.

Check the boxes that apply. What can you conclude? Is there a summary format you use more often? Are there summary formats suitable for more than one purpose and audience?

hoja

QUICK TIP: Putting it all together

The strategy “Determining purpose” can also help you to decide which part of the original text will be more useful for writing your summary. For instance, you may need to refer to every section of the original in a reading summary for class (see summary 4 above), or only to what the text does as whole (see summary 2 above).

Now, the final step!

03

Determine the purpose and audience of your summary

This final section contains useful grammar and vocabulary extracted from the summaries above to write your own. It has been organized by purpose, and it includes the level of formality as well as a practice section where you can write your own sentences based on your course readings. As you read, pay special attention to the verbs used and their tense (present, past, future). Words in parentheses are optional.

Stating the main idea

Practice

More informal:

  • The topic is _____ and how/why it (may) + verb in infinitive.
    Example: “The topic is ozone gas and how it may help predict earthquakes.”

More formal: The project argues that…

Defining and classifying

Practice

Formal:

  • X are/is caused by + noun phrase
  • X are/is made up of + noun phrase

Example: “Earthquakes are caused by plates moving against each other at fault lines.”

Predictions

Practice

Formal:

  • The team/This research will + verb in infinitive 
  • The team/This research/ It + hopes + it will be useful/successful to + verb in infinitive 

Example: “The team will measure ozone gas near fault lines,” “The author hopes this will be successful in order to advance earthquake science.” 

Hypothesizing

Practice

Formal:

  • This research/These results + may + verb in infinitive 
  • This/These phenomena may occur as a result of + noun clause 

Example: “These results may contribute to further advances in earthquake science,” “This would occur as a result of the subterranean rock that fractures before an earthquake” 

Referring to previous research

Practice

Formal: 

  • Over the last (number of years) + there have been many attempts to + verb in infinitive” 
  • A recent study by (author’s last name) + has explored/ looked into/researched/studied + noun phrase. 

Example: “Over the last 15 years, there have been many attempts to discover if earthquakes can be predicted.” “A recent study by Searle, 2019 has explored the causal relationship between ozone gas and earthquakes.”

Citing or referring to author’s ideas

Practice

Formal: 

  • A recent study by + (author’s last name, year of publication)…. 
  • According to the author, + noun clause 
  • In this project/research/ study + the author + discusses/explores/tests/analyzes + noun phrase 

Example: “A recent study by Searle, 2019 has explored the causal relationship between ozone gas and earthquakes.” 

“According to the author, this would occur as a result of the subterranean rock that fractures before an earthquake.” “In this project the author discusses an ongoing research that attempts to provide evidence for the theory of ozone gas as predictor of earthquakes.”

    FINAL PRACTICE

    Find a book chapter, research paper or any reading material in English from one of your courses and (1) apply the reading strategies discussed; (2) write a personal and a more formal summary of that reading. 

    Evaluate your understanding: Below is a summary of the skills discussed in this chapter. For each statement, evaluate your understanding putting a number (1-4) according to the table on the right. If you rate any skill with 1 or 2, go back and review. For further assistance, contact the Armadillo Lab.

    Can do statements
    _ I can list the 3 reading strategies in the chapter.
    _ I can apply pre-reading strategies. I can skim and scan a text.
    _ I can determine the purpose of a text.
    _ I can identify the purpose and audience of a summary.
    _ I can write a summary that fits the purpose and audience by using the appropriate tone (formal/informal), grammar and vocabulary.

    Evaluation
    4: I Got It! | I understand everything.
    3: I Mostly Get It! | I understand most of it, but not all of it.
    2: I Sort of Get It! | I am still a little confused.
    1: I Don´t Get It! | I don´t understand at all and I am very confused.

    check2

    Final reflection
    WHAT DID I LEARN IN THIS GUIDE AND WHAT COULD I APPLY FROM IT IN THE FUTURE?

    ◊ This guide has showed you reading and summary writing strategies. What did you learn thanks to this guide? What elements of reading and writing do you know now that you did not know about before working with this guide? How useful do you think these new elements will be (1) in your classes and (2) in professional settings in your field?

    Online resources for further reading and practice

    References